Copyright (c) 2026 Dennis Paul Himes If a word has nonstandard syllabication that will be indicated by the correct syllabication marked in the definition in square brackets. VERBAL PARTICLES dur optative/imperative (archaic except in incantations) fin (uncertain accuracy) go not kra future mes should (obligation) se past sese distant past shegos (yes/no question) shki (optative) (can be used with the imperative to mean please) stes (continuing) strin can/could/be able to tro often, commonly, habitually vrun (hypothetical) zhri (perfect) Kra se, and sese are tenses. Dur, fin, shki, and vrun are moods. Mes and strin are modals. Stes, tro, and zhri are aspects. The usual order is go [mood] [tense] [modal] [aspect], but this can be changed. For instance go se (often contracted to gos) means something was false in the past, but se go can be used instead, with the implication that it is or might be true in the present. VERBAL PARTICLE CONTRACTIONS gokra go kra gom go mes gos go se setes se stes setrin se strin sesetrin sese strin shemes shego mes shestrin shego strin (can be used for may) PRE-NOMINAL PARTICLES dre drar the (inanimate/animate) go not shegos (interrogative) skra which? pe (direct address) POST-NOMINAL PARTICLES mi (start of relative clause) PRE-ADJECTIVAL PARTICLES brus very go not shros (mitigator, e.g. shros frar = warm) star same (often used with nar) vaba most (often used with nar) var more (often used with nar) VERBS (with valence -- in the descriptions X is used for the first object (the second argument), and Y for the second object (the third argument). Note that some verbs, such as shrer and nevri, take an adjective as an argument.) a 1/2 talk / say X ada 1 laugh arshe 2 be at/in/on (a location or time) ashke 2 say that brimu 2 slaughter bur 2 greet dresna 2 record [dres.na] drun 2 begin, start du 1 go dustre 2 climb, ascend dufi 1 rise en 2 be (with predicate nominative) farma 2 get, acquire fendis 1 sleep fenro 2 equate to fimir 2 need fismu 1 be crucified fraska 2 take fremi 2/3 prefer X (to Y) fren 2 become friri 2/3 add X (to Y) fu 2 make, build fufrar 2 heat fukri 2 burn fumeri 2 walk (an animal) fuste 1 agree, cooperate grasta 2 ensure, see to it (with setential 2nd obj.) grefrar 2 to damage with heat (including, but not necessarily, by burning) grunde 2 rule, command inme 2 prepare ka 2 create, cause kafismu 2 crucify karda 1/2 shout, yell kasper 2 expect kima 2 buy kistre 2 fear, be afraid of kras 2 aid, help krinde 2 see kro 2 restrict, confine kru 1/2 shout meri 1 walk monshe 2/3 consult, ask, query X about Y moste 2 imply that narfi 1 live nergi 2 hear nevri 3 cause noun to be adjective (Often the adj. is a participle.) ngar 2 open ngamo 3 let, allow X Y (where Y is usually a gerund) ngir 2 maintain ngore 2 fight, compete against ngun 1 fall nifir 2 know pra [any] do (used as an anaphora) renden 2 talk about shan 1/2 breathe shkrir 1 be true (often used with sentential subjects) shkro 2 give birth to shkus 2 sense, experience shpras 2 like, love shrar 0 to be hot (ambient temperature) shrer 2 be (with predicate adjective) shretisti 0 rain shrezon 0 to be cold (ambient temperature) shrin 2 cut, divide shtodu 2 leave shtonshrin 2 cut off shtrandu 2 want, desire shtru 1 jump shtruva 2 enjoy, celebrate sisi 2 pet skren 1 exist (used for there is/are), it's so that skun 1 stay, remain sperin 2 think about, consider (a statement, problem, etc.) sporen 2 bring spri 2 send spu 1 come spuspu 1 return srenna 2 keep srir 2 drink stipar 2 write strar 2 put, place, arrange terni 3 give X to Y ternishren 2 feed shtrin 2 cook, prepare food stinas 2 think (as in, consider likely but not necessarily true) timu 2 kill tre 2 strike, hit tris 3 equate X with Y vis 2 thank (often used with dir) vran 1 melt zhen 2 end zhi 2 carry, bear zhris 1/2 turn zinergi 2 read zran 1 shine zurze 2 have, own VERBAL SUFFIXES -dar infinitive/gerund (-tar after s) -fe past passive participle (-e after s) -zru present passive participle -zhaze past active participle -pre -prer present active participle PERSONAL PRONOUNS ta I shi you, sing. (familiar) tasa you, sing. (superior) ke you, sing. (imperative) ne it (inanimate) er he/she/it (animate) stata we (exclusive) fre we (inclusive) shishi you, pl. (familiar) tatasa you, pl. (superior) keke you, pl. (imperative) fros they zhran (intensifier: ta zhran means "I personally", or "I and no one else") POSSESSIVE PERSONAL PRONOUNS tan my shin your (singular familiar and imperative) tasin your (singular superior) nen its (inanimate) erin his/her/its (animate) statin our (exclusive) fren our (inclusive) shishin your (plural familiar and imperative) tatasin your (plural superior) fron their REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ni itself (inanimate) ir itself (animate) fris themselves All other reflexives are the same as the personal pronouns. OTHER PRONOUNS feri this (not touching speaker) fori that gus no one, nothing kri ker (relative pronoun) miprus each one, each thing muni this (touching speaker) shrinus everyone, everything skri why? skru -r what? who? spru how (spru bi [infinitive] = how [infinitive]) us someone, something vrus anyone, anything NOUNS singular, plural; "-" in plural form indicates singular form a. == animate, otherwise inanimate m. == mass, a type of inanimate without a plural ando n- column ar n- place, location are -zir a. eye arfrus n- point in time arna n- a. smile arne n- a. flock asni n- sky avutu n- a. friend banaba ba- a. rabbit bane ba- kiss barna ba- food basvra ba- answer, reply ber be- a. paternal nephew berna be- a. paternal niece besle -zir a. ear binir bi- plow bobon bo- a. nose borgrundertu bo- a. emperor (also grundertu feshe boru) borngarfu bo- city gate borpesti bo- (a coin, and monetary unit) boru boristi empire borfutukeshti bo- a. grand magician branser bra- twig, branch branseri bra- (a coin, and monetary unit) bresni bre- a. paternal male cousin bresnina bre- a.paternal female cousin brigresda bri- first week of month brifuda bri- second week of month bridrin bri- week brimarze bri- a. military unit with one hundred twenty-five soldiers brinde bri- free standing wall brinos bri- a. organized group of people, such as the crew of a ship brinshu brinshisti a. captain (of ship) briro bri- forest briskumu bri- third week of month bris bri- group brispus bri- language bron bro- a. paternal uncle brona bro- a. paternal aunt bruste bru- a. dog bustu bustisti ship den de- thing dermi de- a. maternal nephew dermina de- a. maternal niece desni de- a. maternal male cousin desnina de- a. maternal female cousin didi di- snow dishi di- a. son dor do- a. father dos do- knife dresnavu -n recording (dresna + vu) [dres.navu] driminshri dri- anniversary drin dri- day (24 hours) drinshkru dri- birthday drinifen equinox drinir dri- a. sun drinirkon dri- winter solstice drinistre dri- summer solstice dasma da- a. maternal uncle dasmana dz- a. maternal aunt drune dru- beginning edo n- web enspus n- letter (mailed) enzo n- a. fly erdini m. iron eske n- square esta n- name fedrin fe- today fer fe- legion fis m. water figro fi- sea fir fi- a. woman fresner m. silver frus m. time fri fri- a. tail fuda fu- day in second week of month fushar fu- a. head futukeshti fu- a. magician gakrofeba ga- a.free person garmi ga- dog gesten ge- roof gresda gre- day in first week of month gresnin gre- mark, symbol, letter gri -sti bear gris gri- a. worm grundertu gru- a. ruler, commander grundertu feshe boru gru- a. emperor (also borgrundertu) grushi gru- bowl grusti gru- book gunbri gu- a. throat ibis n- a. arrow in in- star irzhe n- dam, retaining wall iste n- spoon kan ka- a. animal kas ka- a. husband ke kre a. cloud kebosti m. gold keshti m. magic kiti m. stone, rock kitin ki- (a specific) stone, rock kotar kotaste a. man kran kra- tomorrow kresu kresisti a. shark kridi m. fire krofeba kro- a. slave krusrirvu -n alcoholic drink krusta kru- festival, feast, party kusti ku- table mara -ste a. deer marin ma- taste mem m. death meru me- trail, path minshri - year monshevu mo- a. consultant (also the name of an official) mu mu- a. mother ne ne- a. river, brook, stream ngarfu nga- opening, door ngin - a. ant ngos ngo- fight, contest, competition nira -ste trait, feature, characteristic omera n- a. post ontu ontisti net or m. stuff, things, unspecified matters ormo n- a. child orstro n- a. butterfly os n- a. person peste pe- a. moon pesti pe- (a coin, and monetary unit) pestina pe- month pranba pra- a. dream pras pra- a. sister prizhra pri- a. mouth ren re- valley resten m. bronze rimi ri- a. mouse rindo ri road, street ro ro- tree ru risti nation, region san sa- a. wife sar sa- a. something imagined, fantasy sen se- yesterday shamar sha- ladder shiru shi- a. cat shirusin shi- a.kitten shke ke- wheel shkradru shkra- weight (of something specific) shkraska m. weight shkride ri- fox shkru shkru- birth skumu skumisti day in third week of month shanvu breath she m. air shperen -zir a. knee shpri ri- mountain shpro -n a. god shrus - bridge shtre re- a. toe shtrimin shtr- filigree shtoru shtoristi point (of shoreline) shtu - a. bee shu shu- a. wife sifir si- a. horn skar ska- rose skirin ski- end, tip skrende skre- cup skrintre skri- a. brain skror m. matter, substance spin spi- flag, banner spo -n a. brother spus spu- word spre m. the future, later (time) spris spri- a. snake srer m. hair sresnu sresnisti a. honorific for ship captain srirvu -n drink sroma -ste a. wolf stinshir sti- a.(a specific) fire stron stro- a. mouth tar ta- a. reigning king/queen, monarch tas ta- sound (as in noise) tisti m. rain timi ti- mirror tran tra- leaf tretu tre- hammer trin tri- a. child, as in son or daughter trur tru- wall of a building u n- a. goat un -zir a. arm urna m. wine urstir n- a. guest usu n- a. horse utreba n- theater vi vi- rake vro vro- a. fish zendere ze- award, prize zha zha- a. daughter zhrore zhro- fern zhun zhu- a. tounge zhur zhu- a. son zibir zi- a. bird zris zri- a. waterfall PROPER NOUNS CLANS bendena -sti besenri be- dada da- dro - farifer fa- festri fe- frindesa fri- invru invristi karan ka- kresno ke- mekrin me- narshrindi na- par pa- prendu prendisti shpendir shpe- srus sru- stravu stravisti tenderde te- trir tri- vristor vri- zherenen zhe- zhrida zhri- FAMILIES astir n- shpendir bin bi- prendu benre be- stravu benstri be- trir bresme bre- frindesa brun bru- dada dimini di- kresno farmun fa- tendere fermare fe- kresno frema fre- prendu gakrofeba ga- used for freedmen gras gra- prendu grinir gri- shpendir gur gu- karan karkar ka- trir kisini ki- stravu krendere kre- srus krosde kro- stravu kor ko- besenri ma ma- bendena marban ma- trir marninstu marninstisti dro mendere me- mekrin mendo me- farifer merni me- festri mersa -sti par mor - zhrida mispi mi- prendu naran na- invru narbire na- stravu narne na- shpendir ne ne- stravu ostemir ngises ngi- zherenen nurzu nurzisti stravu ostemir N- stravu pisti pi- srus prirdre pri- tenderde sarnaren sa- dada sera se- zherenen sertri se- bendena sharme sha- stravu ostemir shpi shpi- invru shrikra shri- bendena shtro shtro- mekrin spre spre- vristor stirini sti- tenderde strimir stri- karan sursha su- kresno tibistri ti- frindesa tofor to- dro tresbi tre- karan verma ve- narshrindi GIVEN NAMES andir n- male baran ba- female brer bre- male dansti da- female darse da- male de de- male deber de- male freres fre- female kindi ki- male kres kre- female munge mu- male murnen mu- male on on- male onbara on- female pestetor pe- male sar sa- male sares sa- female sezri se- male shensta she- male shkir shki- female shtaren shta- male shterni shte- female shtren shtre male skarne ska- male stara sta- female stru stru- female ti ti- male trarnes tra- female tru tru- male trunde tru- male ur N- male varnarishti va- male zrimi zri- male GEOGRAPHIC NAMES (demonym in parentheses) banabis military camp bari kingdom (ba -ste) beli neighborhood betemere province (beteme -she) bor sea dagar island/province (daga -ta) darmis city (darmisos da-) eferana archipelago/province (gaferauna geferauna) fentaris provinces (fentaros fe-) fentaris var koen province (literally Lower Fentaris) (fentaros koen fe-) fentaris var strena province (literally Upper Fentaris) (fentaros strena fe-) ferneme neighborhood figro bor sea (literally Great Sea) figro dren sea (literally Eastern Sea) figro memen sea (literally Western Sea) figro zhren sea (literally Southern Sea) fiskor province (fiskoros fi-) fitimane bay fre fre- street gedera province (gagedera gegedera) giankor province (gian -eski) gri street kitifo point mandari province (manda -ste) mandase neighborhood (mandasos ma-) memidis province (memdisos me-) mernir neighborhood (merniros me-) mishinirika confederation (mishinir -eski) narinese neighborhood (narinesos na-) neis province (neisos ne-) neniaka kingdom (neniakale neniakashe) pidren strait pondire empire (fond -isti) prushir island/province (prushu prushisti) shresti neighborhood (shrestos shre) sistis sound starbi town (starbos sta-) stennari province (stenna -ste) strenis neighborhood (strenisos stre-) toraka kingdom (ninas ninashe) urnis province (urnisos N-) utreba strena theater (lit. High Theater) vresten neighborhood (vrestenos vre-) zhindis province (zhindisos zhi-) GODS barnas greater god darma lesser god drar shpro ganifirfe the unknown god (literally) fe creator god fen greater god fisin greater god irsha greater god kandin greater god krin greater god krorin greater god marnu greater god memin greater god miste creator god shkrin greater god spe greater god srande creator god vur greater god ADJECTIVES if two forms, inanimate, animate; "-" in animate form indicates inanimate form. agra -r scary, frightening armes armer plain, ordinary, simple bigi many bor big, large, grand bre -r strong, powerful bru right (not left, used with body parts) brufi confident, assured darzrin gray der near (not touching) dren east, eastern driste purple dun short eme -r far, distant eser shy fartre north, northern fenre -r even, level fere -r old ferin ferir this (not touching speaker) fesre diluted, non-viscous fifo -r wet forin forir that frar hot (temperature) freshida proud, vain frir blue frun -ar sure, certain gakrofe free girda -r "as it is called", "so called" gren -ar bad gror idle koen low koshen black krina -r some (but not all) krofe confined, enslaved krondis left (not right) krurda -r intense, powerful kun dry masti -r long memen west, western mipre -r every, each mun this (touching speaker) mo (one's) own nama yellow ngar red nomis right (not left, bru is used for body parts) pin little, small rin white shker true, correct shkra -r heavy shpen fast, quick shren -ar good shrin all, all of sin -or young, new sirshis green sorbar dull staren as much, the same amount of ster near (not touching) strena high titi sharp tursti spicy tutu happy varen more vashren -ar better (var+shren) vrena -r brown vri any zhir pregnant zhren south, southern zi -r quiet zon cold zradur bright, shining PREPOSITIONS if two forms, inanimate, animate; "-" in animate form indicates inanimate form. ar in, at, on ben mor with brin until bi -r of (with respect to; associated with) dir for the purpose of (often governing a clause) faran except farzhe after fes to, toward (space) feshe -r controling, manipulating fi above fres made of, consisting of gen ger without gran touching ko below me -r using mor [see ben] nar as, than (used with comparatives) ne across, through ni -r of (owned by; controlled by; part of) presha from (space) prume for riste before shar into, onto shkrer down shton out of (direction) skrun from, starting at (time) stara -r within, among stin composed of ton out of (position) turin -ir by (used with passives) ADVERBS (See also ADJECTIVE -> ADVERB and PREPOSITION -> ADVERB) bori a lot, extremely, very much fedrin today gamirda outside kran tomorrow mirda inside pinri a little bit sen yesterday shpenri quickly shrifrus always shtema now, currently skrafrus when? skrar where? spri how? stre upwards zrin again COMBINING FORMS NOUN -> NOUN ar- in bor- large, grand, big bri- group of fo(s)- three futu- maker of ga- lacking, no -i resembling (often with i replacing final vowel) -is region kro- five me- tool for men- four -na feminine (non-productive, only used for kinship terms) pa- one pin- small, little ter- provider of zri- two NOUN -> ADJECTIVE -fo -for -like, -y NOUN -> VERB tern(i)- provide/give (noun) ADJECTIVE -> ADJECTIVE ga- not pin- a little bit, mildly ADJECTIVE -> ADVERB -ri -ly (-i after r) (added to the inanimate) PREPOSITION -> ADVERB fe- (describing where, when, or how the action takes place) ADJECTIVE -> NOUN -ba (nominalization) (-pa after s) (can be either inanimate or animate, plural: -ban -pan) -dru -ment, -ity, -ness (of something specific) (inanimate, plural: -dru) -ska -ment, -ity, -ness (mass noun) VERB -> VERB zur- (passive) VERB -> NOUN (can be either inanimate or animate) -vu (something which is or has been verbed) (plural: -vun) -tu (agentive) (plural: -tun) CONJUNCTIONS atri and (used for VOs with a shared S) besge although bras during, when farmar but farzhi after frer while memagi unless memas because, since, if risti before sirne otherwise skur in order that, so that srin inclusive or tri and trigi and not zhor exclusive or INTERJECTIONS e oh! gos no i ouch! shir hello shko yes (informal) shkos yes tatan sorry! NUMBERS CARDINALS gu -r no, zero pa one zri two fos three men four kro five karpa six kazra seven karfos eight karmen nine zrikro ten foskro fifteen menkro twenty fezor twenty-five zrifezor fifty fosfezor seventy-five menfezor one hundred marze one hundred twenty-five zrimarze two hundred fifty fosmarze three hundred seventy-five menmarze five hundred zhru six hundred twenty-five zrizhru one thousand two hundred fifty foszhru one thousand eight hundred seventy-five menzhru two thousand five hundred ORDINALS non first Otherwise the cardinal with -shron appended, except that final s is dropped before the -shron, so zrishron for second, foshron for third, etc. (Pashron is occasionally used for first, but non is more common.) REVERSE ORDINALS seren last, ultimate seren zrishron penultimate seren foshron antepenultimate etc. MULTIPLICATIVE pas once zris twice fosis thrice etc. The cardinal with -s appended when it ends in a vowel, and -is appended when it ends in a consonant.